Fig. 1

Subjects with heart failure have a specific microbiota compositional shift. A Graphical representation of the cohorts used in the study. B Principal coordinate analysis of Bray–Curtis dissimilarities obtained for the metagenomic species profiles, by non-metric multi-dimensional scaling (NMDS) plot in heart failure (HF) and healthy controls (HC). Box plots and dot plots of the alpha diversity indices Shannon (C) and inverse Simpson (D) in HF compared to HC. Differences in distributions of Shannon diversity index and inverse Simpson were calculated using Wilcoxon tests. Multivariable linear regression models were fitted to estimate whether the differences remained after adjusting for age, sex, and BMI (model estimates are shown below the plots). E Relative abundance of bacterial phyla in HF and HC. F Compositional differences on species levels, displaying effect size from MaAsLin2 modeling, with age, sex, and BMI as covariates, in HF compared to HC (see also Additional file 2 Table S1-3)