Table 1 Current and putative prognostic biomarkers for prostate cancer

Clinical or pathological characteristics

High-risk prostate cancer defined as: stage T2c^a or higher and PSA >20 ng/ml, or Gleason 8-10

Tissue biopsy, serum

D'Amico et al. [11]

PSA velocity

Serum

D'Amico et al. [14]

Circulating tumor cells

Whole blood

Kantoff et al. [35], Goodman et al. [36]

Molecular factors

Ki-67

Prostate tissue

Berney et al. [16], Khor et al. [17], Bettencourt et al. [18], Fisher et al. [19]

α-Methylacyl-CoA-racemase

Prostate tissue

Murphy et al. [20], Rubin et al. [21]

Prostate-specific membrane antigen

Prostate tissue

Ross et al. [23], Perner et al. [24]

Urokinase plasminogen activator or Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1

Prostate tissue

Gupta et al. [30]

Transforming growth factor-β or interleukin-6 soluble receptor

Prostate tissue

Shariat et al. [31], Shariat et al. [32]

microRNA

Plasma, urine

Porkka et al. [37]

Telomerase

Post-prostate massage urinary cells

Meid et al. [55]

Annexin A3

Post-prostate massage urine

Schostak et al. [57]

Matrix metalloproteinase 9, 2

Urine

Roy et al. [59], Di Carlo et al. [60]

Genetic features

Multi-gene panels

Prostate tissue

Cuzick et al. [25], Ding et al. [26], Penney et al. [28]

Copy number variations

Prostate tissue

Taylor et al. [27]

DNA-methylation patterns

Prostate tissue

Cottrell et al. [29]