Amoxicillin
|
Transpeptidase
|
β-lactam
|
Altered target, β-lactamase
|
Reduced abundance enterobacteria [167]
|
NA
|
NA
|
NA
|
Ampicillin
|
Transpeptidase
|
β-lactam
|
Altered target, β-lactamase
|
Decreased bacterial diversity, greater prevalence of Enterobacter spp. [42]
|
Increased expression of genes involved in tRNA biosynthesis, translation, vitamin biosynthesis, phosphate transport, stress response, proton motive force, antibiotic resistance and phage [72]; reduced immune cell and mitochondrial gene expression [19]
|
Increased bacterial glycosidase and mucinase activity [168]
|
NA
|
Cefotaxime
|
Transpeptidase
|
β-lactam (third generation cephalosporin)
|
Altered target
|
Decreased bacterial cell count [169]; decreased abundance of anaerobes and enterobacteria [170]
|
NA
|
NA
|
NA
|
Chloramphenicol
|
NA
|
NA
|
NA
|
NA
|
Increased expression of genes involved in tRNA biosynthesis, translation, vitamin biosynthesis, phosphate transport, stress response, proton motive force, antibiotic resistance and phage [72]
|
NA
|
NA
|
Ciprofloxacin
|
DNA gyrase
|
Fluoroquinolone
|
Altered target, efflux
|
Decreased abundance of enterobacteria [171]. Lower bacterial diversity [68, 69], decrease in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) producers [71]
|
Increased expression of genes involved in tRNA biosynthesis, translation, vitamin biosynthesis, phosphate transport, stress response, proton motive force, antibiotic resistance and phage [72]
|
NA
|
NA
|
Clarithromycin plus metronidazole
|
Bacterial 50S rRNA/DNA synthesis
|
Macrolide (clarithromycin) and nitroimidazole (metronidazole)
|
Altered target/drug inactivation (clarithromycin) and efflux (metronidazole)
|
Reduction in abundance of Actinobacteria, partial recovery of pretreatment state [70]
|
NA
|
NA
|
NA
|
Clindamycin
|
Bacterial 50S rRNA
|
Lincosamide
|
Altered target
|
Initial decreased abundance of enterococci, streptococci, and anaerobic bacteria, subsequent recovery of abundance of streptococci and anaerobic bacteria [172]; reduced diversity of Bacteroides spp. [74]; decrease in abundance of bacteria producing short-chain fatty acids [71]
|
NA
|
Increased production of immunoglobulin proteins, transthyretin and chymotrypsin-like elastase family proteins; decreased production of proteins involved in T-cell activation, chymotrypsinogen B, phospholipase A2, myosin-1a and cytochrome C [20]
|
Increased creatine and creatinine, and levels of primary bile acids, N-acetylated amino acids, proline-hydroxyproline, pyroglutamylglutamine, myo-inositol, chiroinositol, methyl-chiro-inositol and γ-glutamyl amino acids, and increased host tryptophan metabolism; decreased levels of secondary bile acids, enterolactone, equol, N-acetyl-aspartate, short-chain fatty acids and sugar alcohols, and decreased bacterial tryptophan metabolism [84]
|
Erythromycin
|
Translation
|
Macrolide
|
Efflux
|
Decreases in abundance of Streptococci, enterococci, and enterobacteria; increases in abundance of staphylococci; alteration in abundance of anaerobes [173]
|
Increased expression of genes involved in tRNA biosynthesis, translation, vitamin biosynthesis, phosphate transport, stress response, proton motive force, antibiotic resistance, and phage [72]
|
NA
|
NA
|
Gentamicin
|
Bacterial 30S ribosome
|
Aminoglycoside
|
Decreased uptake, drug modification
|
Decreased bacterial diversity, greater prevalence of Enterobacter spp. [42]
|
NA
|
NA
|
Increased levels ofoligosaccharides and secondary bile acids; decreased levels of short-chain fatty acids, phenolic acids, uracil, primary bile acids, branched-chain amino acids and aromatic amino acids [85]
|
Meropenem
|
Transpeptidase
|
Carbapenem
|
Altered target, β-lactamase
|
Reduced abundance of enterobacteria, streptococci, Clostridia, Bacteroides spp., and Gram-negative cocci [174]
|
NA
|
NA
|
NA
|
Streptomycin
|
Bacterial 30S ribosome
|
Aminoglycoside
|
Decreased uptake, drug modification
|
Overall diversity decreases; abundance of Ruminococcaceae and Bacteroidaceae increases [20]
|
NA
|
Increased production of peptidases, proteins involved in actin polymerization, transthyretin, chymotrypsin-like elastase family proteins, myosin-1a, and cytochrome C; decreased production of chymotrypsinogen B and phospholipase A2 [20]
|
Bile acid metabolism, steroid metabolism, and eicosanoid synthesis affected; levels of leukotriene B4 decrease [88]
|
Ticarcillin
|
Transpeptidase
|
β-lactam
|
Altered target, β-lactamase
|
Decreased abundance of enterococci [175]
|
NA
|
NA
|
NA
|
Tigecycline
|
Bacterial 30S ribosome
|
Tetracycline
|
Altered target, efflux
|
Reduction in abundance of enterococci, E. coli, lactobacilli, and bifidobacteria and increases in other enterobacteria and yeasts [176]; reduction in abundance of Bacteroidetes and increases in Proteobacteria [81]
|
NA
|
NA
|
NA
|
Vancomycin
|
Peptidoglycan
|
Glycopeptide
|
Altered peptidoglycan target
|
Decreased bacterial diversity [177]
|
Increased expression of genes involved in tRNA biosynthesis, translation, vitamin biosynthesis, phosphate transport, stress response, proton motive force, antibiotic resistance, and phage [72]; reduced immune cell and mitochondrial gene expression [19]
|
NA
|
Leukotriene B4 affected [88]; increased levels of oligosaccharides and decreased levels of short-chain fatty acids and uracil [86]; low doses increase levels of short-chain fatty acids [53]
|