|
Antibiotic resistance
|
Enrichment for resistance genes and resistant organisms [73]. In some cases, the rates of genetic exchange between microbes increase [178]
|
Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Carbapenem-resistant Escherichia coli infection [79]
|
|
Vitamin production
|
Depletion of vitamin-producing bacteria
|
Broad-spectrum antibiotic use (especially β-lactams with an N-methylthiotetrazole moiety) can cause vitamin K deficiency leading to hypoprothrombinemia and uncontrolled bleeding [179]
|
|
Digestion
|
Changes in the proportions of relevant metabolic functions in the microbiome [180]
|
Altered efficiency of nutrient extraction from food that can contribute to obesity [45, 59]
|
|
Diversity
|
Reduced number of different microbes [68]
|
Lower diversity reduces ecological stability and resistance to pathogens. Increased susceptibility to infection and diarrhea [34, 46, 77, 78]
|
|
Resilience
|
Decreased availability of microbes to take over newly open niches
|
Each course of antibiotic acts on a new ecology. Recovery to a stable state, and to a particular stable state, is highly individual [63]
|
|
Immune regulation
|
Increased inappropriate immune activity
|
Asthma, allergies and autoimmune diabetes have all been linked to antibiotic use [6, 10, 61]
|
|
Composition
|
Varying effects across taxa and for different durations
|
See Table 1 [41, 67–69, 72]
|
